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Converter is a professional term in the field of chemical engineering, referring to a device used to achieve the conversion of substances or energy forms. It is included in the second edition of “Chemical Engineering Terms on Both Sides of the Taiwan Strait”. The definition and discipline classification of this term have been determined [1].
In industrial applications, power electronic systems based on power converters are widely used for the control and conversion of industrial and household electrical energy. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) serves as the core component, dominating the power converter market, with a market size of 6.6 billion US dollars in 2020. In terms of thermal management technology, the direct cooling structure reduces the thermal resistance by 30% compared to traditional solutions [4]. Industry analysis covers dimensions such as supply and demand balance, competitive landscape, and life cycle, and research methods include various methodologies such as system analysis, structural analysis, and case studies [2-3].

Silicon materials are important semiconductor materials. The chemical symbol for silicon is Si. In the electronics industry, the silicon used should have high purity and excellent electrical and mechanical properties.
Introduction

In research and production, silicon materials and silicon devices mutually promote each other. During World War II, silicon was used to manufacture high-frequency crystal detectors for radar. The silicon used at that time had a very low purity and was not a single crystal. In 1950, the first silicon transistor was produced, which increased people’s interest in preparing high-quality silicon single crystals. In 1952, the direct pulling method (CZ) for cultivating silicon single crystals was successfully developed. In 1953, the area melting method without crucible (FZ) was also researched, which could both perform physical purification and pull single crystals. In 1955, the zinc reduction of tetrachlorosilicon method was adopted to produce pure silicon, but it could not meet the requirements for manufacturing transistors.
In 1956, the hydrogen reduction of trichlorosilane method was successfully studied. After a period of exploration of trace impurities in silicon, the hydrogen reduction of trichlorosilane method became a main method. By 1960, industrial production using this method had reached a scale. The introduction of silicon rectifiers and silicon gate valves prompted the production of silicon materials to leap to the top position among semiconductor materials. In the 1960s, the emergence of silicon epitaxial growth single crystal technology and silicon planar processing techniques not only made the silicon transistor manufacturing technology mature, but also promoted the rapid development of integrated circuits. In the early 1980s, the world’s total polysilicon production reached 2,500 tons. Silicon is also one of the promising solar cell materials. The technology for manufacturing solar cells using polysilicon has been mature; the research progress of amorphous non-crystalline silicon films is rapid; amorphous silicon solar cells have begun to enter the market. Chemical composition
Silicon is an elemental semiconductor. The electrically active impurities phosphorus and boron should be respectively less than 0.4 ppb and 0.1 ppb in qualified semiconductors and polycrystalline silicon. When pulling single crystals, a certain amount of electrically active impurities should be introduced to obtain the required conductivity type and resistivity. Heavy metals such as copper, gold, and iron, and non-metallic carbon are extremely harmful impurities. Their presence will deteriorate the performance of the PN junction. Silicon has a relatively high carbon content, and those with a carbon content lower than 1 ppm can be considered as low-carbon single crystals. When the carbon content exceeds 3 ppm, its harmful effect becomes more significant. The oxygen content in silicon is very high. The presence of oxygen is both beneficial and harmful. The oxygen content of straightly pulled silicon single crystals ranges from 5 to 40 ppm; the oxygen content of zone melted silicon single crystals can be lower than 1 ppm.
Properties of silicon
Silicon has excellent semiconductor electrical properties. The band gap width is moderate, at 1.12 electron volts. The carrier mobility is relatively high, with an electron mobility of 1350 cm2/V·s and a hole mobility of 480 cm2/V·s. The intrinsic resistivity at room temperature (300K) is as high as 2.3×105 ohm·cm, and after doping, the resistivity can be controlled within a wide range of 104 to 10-4 ohm·cm, meeting the needs for manufacturing various devices. The non-equilibrium minority carrier lifetime of silicon single crystals is relatively long, ranging from tens of microseconds to 1 millisecond.
The thermal conductivity is relatively high. The chemical properties are stable, and it is easy to form a stable thermal oxide film. In the manufacturing of planar silicon devices, the oxide film can be used to achieve surface passivation and protection of the PN junction, and it can also form a metal-oxide-semiconductor structure to manufacture MOS field-effect transistors and integrated circuits. These properties make the PN junction have good characteristics, and silicon devices have advantages such as high voltage tolerance, low reverse leakage current, high efficiency, long service life, good reliability, good heat conduction, and the ability to operate at 200°C. Technical Specifications
The main technical parameters of silicon single crystals include conductivity type, resistivity and uniformity, non-equilibrium carrier lifetime, crystal orientation and crystal orientation deviation, crystal defects, etc.
Conductivity type: The conductivity type is determined by the donor or acceptor impurities introduced. P-type single crystals are mostly doped with boron, N-type single crystals are mostly doped with phosphorus, and the substrate of epitaxial wafers is doped with antimony or arsenic.
Resistivity and uniformity: During the growth of single crystals, certain impurities are introduced to control the resistivity of the single crystals. Due to the uneven distribution of impurities, the resistivity is also uneven. The uniformity of resistivity includes longitudinal resistivity uniformity, cross-sectional resistivity uniformity and micro-area resistivity uniformity. It directly affects the consistency of device parameters and the yield rate.
Non-equilibrium carrier lifetime: The additional electrons and holes generated by light or electrical injection immediately recombine and disappear. The average time they exist is called the non-equilibrium carrier lifetime. The non-equilibrium carrier lifetime is related to the amplification factor of the device, reverse current and switching characteristics, etc. The value of the lifetime indirectly reflects the purity of the silicon single crystal. The presence of heavy metal impurities will significantly reduce the lifetime value.
Crystal orientation and crystal orientation deviation: The commonly used crystal orientations are mostly (111) and (100) (see the figure). When the axis of the crystal does not match the crystal direction, the angle of deviation is called crystal orientation deviation.
Crystal defects
For silicon single crystals used in the production of electronic devices, in addition to having certain restrictions on the dislocation density, no small-angle grain boundaries, dislocation arrays, star-shaped structures, etc. are allowed to exist. Single crystals with a dislocation density lower than 200/cm² are called dislocation-free single crystals, and dislocation-free silicon single crystals account for the majority of the output. In dislocation-free silicon single crystals, there are also micro-defects such as impurity atoms, vacancy clusters, self-gap atomic clusters, oxides, carbides or other impurities’ precipitates. Defects that aggregate into ring-shaped or spiral-shaped are called vortex defects. During the thermal processing, the interaction and changes between the micro-defects of the silicon single crystal directly affect the success or failure of integrated circuits.

The inverter is a converter that converts direct current energy (from batteries or storage batteries) into fixed-frequency and fixed-voltage or variable-frequency and variable-voltage alternating current (generally 220V, 50Hz sine wave). It consists of an inverter bridge, control logic and filtering circuits. It is widely used in air conditioners, home theaters, electric sanders, power tools, sewing machines, DVDs, VCDs, computers, televisions, washing machines, range hoods, refrigerators, video recorders, massagers, fans, lighting, etc. If you are driving out for work or traveling, you can use the inverter to connect the battery to power various appliances and tools. The vehicle-mounted inverter output through the cigarette lighter is in power specifications of 20W, 40W, 80W, 120W to 150W. For larger power inverters, they need to be connected to the battery through a connecting cable. By connecting household appliances to the output of the power converter, various appliances can be used in the car. The appliances that can be used include: mobile phones, laptops, digital cameras, cameras, lighting lamps, electric razors, CD players, game consoles, palmtop computers, power tools, car refrigerators and various travel, camping and medical emergency appliances.

A semiconductor diode is an electronic device that utilizes the properties of semiconductors. The most common types of semiconductor diodes are PN junction diodes and metal-semiconductor contact diodes. Their common feature is the asymmetry of the voltage-current characteristics, meaning that the current exhibits good conductivity in one direction and high resistance in the opposite direction. They can be used for rectification, demodulation, voltage stabilization, constant current, variable capacitance, switching, light emission, and photoelectric conversion, etc. High-frequency amplification or ultra-high-speed switching tunnel diodes can be made by utilizing the tunnel effect of carriers in heavily doped PN junctions.

A rectifier (in English: rectifier) is a device that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC), and can be used in power supply systems and for detecting radio signals, etc. Rectifiers can be made of vacuum tubes, igniter tubes, solid-state silicon semiconductor diodes, mercury arcs, etc. On the contrary, a device that converts direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC) is called an “inverter” (inverter).
In a standby UPS, only the battery needs to be charged, and no power supply to the load is required, so there is only a charger. In a dual-transformer UPS, this device supplies power to both the inverter and charges the battery, so it is called a rectifier/charger.
A rectifier is a rectification device. Simply put, it is a device that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). It has two main functions: first, it converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC), filters it, and supplies it to the load or the inverter; second, it provides charging voltage for the battery. Therefore, it also functions as a charger.

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